Virtual Museum “#Hamlet_UA: Act 1, Scene 1943” in the Context of Decolonizing Knowledge about Ukraine

Nataliya Torkut ^*

Zaporizhzhia National University; Shevchenko Institute of Literature of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8905-6769

Svitlana Deineka ^*

Shevchenko Institute of Literature of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2551-9813

Roman Lavrentii ^*

Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4434-6647

You are welcome, masters; welcome all…
Welcome, good friends…

(Hamlet 2.2.445–446)

The modern epoch can undoubtedly be called the era of digital technologies that are making their mark on science, education, and culture. In the age of digitization, masterpieces of world classics are also becoming available to users of the world wide web. Shakespeare studies are also represented in numerous online resources.

Shakespeare-related digital platforms, sources, sites, and materials can be classified into the following four categories:

1. Internet encyclopedias (e.g., The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Shakespeare https://link.springer.com/referencework/10.1007/978-3-319-99378-2, Stanford Global Shakespeare Encyclopedia https://u.osu.edu/mclc/2018/05/07/stanford-global-shakespeare-encyclopedia/ or Shakespeare Online https://www.shakespeare-online.com/);
2. Shakespeare’s works online, i.e., plays, poems, sonnets (e.g., Open Source Shakespeare https://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/, Folger Shakespeare Library https://www.folger.edu/ or The Complete Works of William Shakespeare https://shakespeare.mit.edu/);
3. Archives with various materials on Shakespeare’s works (e.g., Victorian Illustrated Shakespeare Archive https://shakespeareillustration.org/tag/kings/) or written references (Shakespeare Documented https://shakespearedocumented.folger.edu/);
4. Sites of locations and institutions related to Shakespeare (e.g., Shakespeare Birthplace Trust https://www.shakespeare.org.uk/ or Ukrainskyi Shekspirivskyi Portal https://shakespeare.znu.edu.ua/uk/).

Virtual Shakespeare museums, which enable the introduction of a wide scope of information about the author and various forms of his presence in the modern world (theatre performances, intermedial projections, translations, etc.), to numerous categories of visitors (students, theatre practitioners, scholars, or Shakespeare fans), will hopefully set a new trend in the modern digital world of Shakespeare.

One example of such a virtual platform is the museum created in 2023 in Ukraine in order to preserve the memory of the first staging of Hamlet in Lviv (1943).^[1] It also traces the hardships of Ukrainian Hamletiana for the world. One of the peculiarities of Ukrainian Shakespeareana is its difficult formation, as its early development took place despite the oppression suffered by Ukrainians in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union.^[2] For more than 300 years, the major part of Ukraine belonged to the Russian empire, and in accordance with the Valuev Circular (1863) and the Ems Decree (1876), the Ukrainian language was prohibited in cultural, educational, and religious spheres. However, Ukrainians have repeatedly proved that Shakespeare sounds magical in their language and that Ukrainian translations are worthy of the stage.^[3]

During the early Soviet period in Ukraine, some of Shakespeare’s plays were staged, but not Hamlet. One of the causes of this theatrical oblivion of the tragedy in the USSR of the 1940s and 1950s was the fact that Yosyp Stalin hated this work by Shakespeare:

Hamlet was never formally banned by the Soviet authorities (no documentary rulings were made). Under Stalin, it was considered an extremely dangerous text that could cost lives for those who dared to deal with it. It was a real tactic of ‘text banishment’ or ‘text exile’ which proved to have been no less influential than official directives of the Soviet power. Even an oral negative evaluation of a literary work or its author by ‘Comrade Stalin’ was enough to exclude it from the Soviet cultural environment. In a totalitarian society, the leader’s thought always triggers self-censorship mechanisms that operate no less effectively than laws and directives. (Torkut 136)

Translated by Mykhailo Rudnytskyi, Hamlet was performed in Lviv on 21 September 1943 despite the horrors of World War II. As Ukrainian Shakespearean scholars Nataliya Torkut and Yurii Cherniak point out in their article “Ukrainian Hamlet and ‘Hamletizing’ Ukraine: ‘Will you play upon this pipe?’”:

[T]he Ukrainian nation can be easily compared to Hamlet […] In Ukraine as well as in other European countries Shakespeare proves to be more than an author of one or several genius works but he is a creator of something much more influential and impressive. He has been playing the role of an intellectual inspirer in the process of cross-cultural communication, encouraging further development of mental activity and creative searches. (99–100)

Science and culture, in particular literature, are great tools for speaking to the world about a people’s talents and identity. In the era of rapid technological development, this was made possible by creating a bilingual virtual museum and creating multi-level public communication aimed at attracting a wide international audience and drawing attention to the problems of studying unknown or little-known facts about Ukraine and its culture.

The Context of the Hamlet Museum

The aim of this article is to illustrate the significance of the creative work of Ukrainian artists on global Hamletiana. The example of translations and theatrical performances of the 1860–1940s specifically refutes the imperial myth about the secondary nature of the Ukrainian reception of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Additionally, it aims to acquaint readers with the principles of organizing the virtual museum “#HAMLET_UA: ACT 1, SCENE 1943” and outline the prospects for its continuation.

Created in 2023 on the occasion of the eightieth anniversary of the Ukrainian 1943 premiere of Shakespeare’s Hamlet at Lviv (dir. Yosyp Hirniak), the virtual museum aims to reveal not only the aesthetic features of a particular production, but also the complex political situation in which it was created, as well as the socio-cultural context that preceded it. The idea of creating this virtual project belongs to Maiia Harbuziuk (1965–2023), who, incidentally, was also one of the driving forces behind the initiative to have a Ukrainian Shakespeare Festival, eventully launched in Ivano Frankivsk (17–23 June 2024).

The presentations of the virtual museum “#Hamlet_UA: ACT 1, SCENE 1943”^[4] (by the speakers Nataliya Torkut, Roman Lavrentii, Svitlana Deineka, and Maksym Brychka), which organically intertwined literary, theatre and socio-cultural components, demonstrated how fruitful intellectual and creative interaction between representatives of different sciences and museum workers can be.^[5]

The online exhibition of the virtual museum presents facsimiles of archival documents, manuscripts, and materials related to translations, Shakespearean theatre performances, and the discourse around its creation, as well as photographs of Lviv during the Second World War. One of the museum’s features is an interactive navigation through its halls. The exhibits of the virtual museum are accompanied by detailed textual commentaries in Ukrainian and English, which extend its usage into an open educational and popular science resource.

The museum features ten halls arranged in a logical order: the first four halls introduce visitors to the history of Hamlet translations, the translators, and unique documents; the next two halls immerse guests in the atmosphere of Lviv in the early 1940s; and the final four halls are dedicated to the play itself, covering its post-performance history. All contain numerous original testimonies and photographs about the creative team of Hamlet, the play itself, theatre reviews, and the fates of all those involved in the production. The names of the inspirers and creators of the virtual museum are also displayed.

The Hamlet Museum

The virtual museum’s exhibition opens in Hall 1 and introduces the translators of William Shakespeare’s Hamlet in nineteenth-century Ukraine.^[6] Visitors see a portrait of Paulin Święcicki (1841–1876), a Ukrainian author of Polish origin, well-known for his translating, editing, journalistic, pedagogical, and public activity. Next to his photo is the text of his translation of Act I of Hamlet, which appeared in the Nyva magazine (1865, #3–5, #7–9). The translation is signed with his pseudonym: Pavlo Svii.^[7] The same hall hosts a portrait of Mykhailo Starytskyi (1839–1904), a famous Ukrainian writer, theatre practitioner, and translator who first translated the entire play Hamlet into Ukrainian in the 1870s. At that time, in accordance with the Valuev Circular of 1863 and Ems Decree of 1876, using the Ukrainian language in public spaces, i.e. in school teaching, church, and culture was prohibited. In fact, it was forbidden to translate world classics into Ukrainian. As for the theatre, only social melodramas were allowed to be staged in Ukrainian; world classics were allowed in Russian translation only. Thus, an ethno-cultural inferiority complex was imposed on Ukrainians. In order to release his translation and circumvent the Ems ban, Starytskyi had to bribe the censor (Kalnychenko and Kolomiyets 169), and the Ukrainian Hamlet was published in 1882. Thus, the publication of Shakespeare’s Hamlet in Ukrainian was an act of cultural resistance to Russia’s imperial policy. As Irena Makaryk notes:

[S]ince both native and foreign works had endured a simultaneous ban, it is not at all surprising that in Ukraine (as in most European countries, although for very different reasons), the classics, including Shakespeare, would become associated with national and cultural revival. A theatrical challenge to a neonatal theatre, Shakespeare had all the magnetism and the potency of the taboo. But, although forbidden in the language of the colonized, Shakespeare had also been tantalizingly present in Russian productions in Ukraine. Consequently, Ukrainian cultural aspirations and taste were built upon that which was prohibited and that which was permitted, following the usual paradox of censorship, which predictably creates sophisticated audiences. (Makaryk, Shakespeare 14)^[8]

The release of Mykhailo Starytskyi’s translation was welcomed by famous Ukrainian writers, such as Ivan Franko, Panas Myrnyi, Lesia Ukrainka, and Olena Pchilka.^[9] Three years before the publication of the Ukrainian Hamlet translated by Starytskyi, the first amateur performances took place in the houses of the famous Kyiv photographer Franciszek Mezer and the prominent Ukrainian composer Mykola Lysenko. Museum guests can see photos of the Lysenko-Starytskyi family, who were directly involved in the first production of Hamlet. The music for this amateur performance of Hamlet was composed by the world-famous composer Lysenko, who also played the role of Polonius. The role of Ophelia was played by Lysenko’s wife, Olha O’Connor. Lysenko had dreamt of being an actor and even tried to enrol in an acting school, but was rejected. Instead, he took part in the aforementioned amateur performance as Polonius.^[10]

Museum visitors see the title page of William Shakespeare’s Hamlet translated by Mykhailo Starytskyi. The first page of Mykola Lysenko’s notes for the musical score of the play is also exhibited in this hall. It is worth mentioning that both negative and positive reviews have been preserved to this day, and very rare photographs of these are valuable exhibits in the virtual museum. One such exhibit is a photo of the newspaper Kyivlianyn, which published a negative review of Starytskyi’s translation of Hamlet in one of its issues. Pro-imperial critics (the newspaper Kyivlianyn no. 232 of 1882 and Odesskyi Vestnik no. 26 of 1883) unleashed a storm of abuse against Starytskyi’s translation, claiming that the Ukrainian language was not capable of reproducing the full depth of Shakespeare’s original. The article in Kyivlianyn was called “Hamlet in postoly”^[11] hinting at the rustic nature of the Ukrainian language and culture. Moreover, the writer Daniil Mordovtsev spread the rumour that in Starytskyi’s translation, the first line of Hamlet’s famous monologue sounds like: “To be or not to be, — that’s the snag”, when in fact Starytskyi’s translation reads “To be or not to be – that is what is at stake”. This false fabrication was long used as “undeniable evidence to prove the absurdity of the very idea of translating Shakespeare into Ukrainian” (Шаповалова [Shapovalova] 85). Another item is a photo of the front page of A. Hatsuk’s Newspaper no. 47 of 1882 and the positive review of Starytskyi’s translation of Hamlet published in this issue. Pro-Ukrainian newspapers praised Starytskyi’s translation, emphasizing its great role in popularising Shakespeare among Ukrainians (Zoria of 13 October 1882 and A. Hatsuk’s Newspaper no. 47 of 1882).

Halls 2–4 of the museum introduce several translators of Shakespeare’s Hamlet, from Panteleimon Kulish (1819–1897), to Yurii Fedkovych (1834–1888), Hnat Khotkevych (1878–1938), Yurii Klen (1891–1947), Leonid Hrebinka (1909–1942), Hryhorii Kochur (1908–1994), and Viktor Ver (1901–1944).^[12] Panteleimon Kulish, a Ukrainian writer, folklorist, ethnographer, linguist, translator, critic, editor, publisher, and philosopher of history, who planned to translate twenty-seven plays, managed to complete thirteen translations.^[13] The museum exhibits the manuscript sheets of Kulish’s translation of Hamlet (1885), written in the Ukrainian phonetic spelling <kulishivka>. This translation was first published and commented on in Lviv^[14] by the poet and founder of Ukrainian Shakespeare studies, Ivan Franko, who became the editor and commentator of Kulish’s translations of Shakespeare in 1899, two years after Kulish’s death.^[15] Yurii Cherniak, in the article “Key topoi of the Ukrainian Shakespearean discourse of the late 19th – mid 20th century”, argues that:

P. Kulish considered translation into his native language an important step along this path, as it would make the brilliant masterpieces accessible to a wide range of Ukrainians, and the Ukrainian language would also get a chance for improvement and development. (67)

In the 1870s, the Ukrainian romantic writer Yurii Fedkovych translated Shakespeare’s Hamlet and Macbeth. The uniqueness of these translations lies in the fact that Fedkovych reproduced the texts of the great tragedies in the Hutsul dialect.^[16] The following translations into Ukrainian were made in the first decades of Soviet rule, in the 1920s and 1930s, when the Soviet government temporarily introduced a policy of Ukrainisation, and allowed translations and performances in Ukrainian. At this time, Hnat Khotkevych, who can be called a polymath,^[17] took up the translation of Shakespeare into Ukrainian. He translated a total of six Shakespeare plays, including Hamlet. However, only the comedies were published in the Theatre Library series by the Kharkiv publishing house “Rukh” during Khotkevych’s lifetime. The manuscripts of the translations of Macbeth and Romeo and Juliet are still kept in the Lviv Central State Historical Archive, and Hamlet was first published as late as 1998, in an issue of the Paradigm magazine. In 1938, Khotkevych, like many other Ukrainian cultural figures, became a victim of repression from the Soviet authorities. He was accused of spying for Germany and was sentenced to death by firing squad. The sentence was carried out on 8 October 1938. The museum contains photographs of documents related to the case of Hnat Khotkevych, and the SSU (The Security Service of Ukraine) opened the KGB (The Committee for State Security) archives on the execution of the death sentence.

Yurii Klen, a talented Ukrainian poet, translator, and literary critic, translated Shakespeare’s Hamlet in 1936. Lada Kolomiyets argues that:

Yurii Klen’s translation was conventional, accessible to the mass audience, staged and at the same time profound in its treatment of the issues, and highly artistic in its rendering of the poetics of the original work. (168)^[18]

In 1931, his close friends Mykola Zerov (1890–1937), Mykhailo Drai-Khmara (1889–1939), and Pavlo Fylypovych (1891–1937)^[19] were arrested and sentenced to death by the totalitarian authorities. The neoclassicist Maksym Rylskyi (1895–1964), who also belonged to this literary group, was involved in this case as well, but after being severely tortured, he was released because of lack of evidence of any guilty action. Klen had to emigrate and went to Germany for medical treatment; he never returned to the Soviet Union. Since the writer was considered an ‘enemy of the people’ in his homeland, all his poetic works and translations were banned. The museum visitors can see the title page of the textbook that includes the text of Hamlet translated by Yurii Klen without mentioning the translator’s name (1936). This translation was made in 1930 at the request of the State Publishing House of Literature and Art.

Leonid Hrebinka,^[20] another famous Ukrainian poet and translator, made a complete translation of Hamlet in 1939 and handed it over to the Ivan Franko Ukrainian Drama Theatre in Kyiv. However, the manuscript was lost until the 1970s, when it was found and transferred to the Archive-Museum of Literature and Art of the Ukrainian SSR. Fleeing repression against the Ukrainian intellectual elite, Hrebinka had to move from Kyiv to Moscow early in 1933. On 24 June 1941, Hrebinka was accused of Ukrainian nationalism’ and the ‘intent to commit a terrorist act against the Soviet leadership’ (Dotsenko 15), and was arrested. The military tribunal of the People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) sentenced the poet to death, a sentence that was later revised to ten years in prison. However, Hrebinka never learned about this change: the management of the Saratov prison, where he was kept on death row, ordered the artist’s execution because of his aristocratic background. On 14 April 1942, Hrebinka died in prison of intestinal intoxication, i.e. by poison. Hrebinka’s translation of Hamlet was published due to the efforts of two talented Ukrainian translators: Ihor Kostetskyi (1913–1983) and Hryhorii Kochur. Kostetskyi and Hrebinka had been close friends before emigrating, and while exile, he was one of the founders of the Ukrainian Shakespeare Society.^[21] The manuscript of the translation of Hamlet by Hrebinka was kept in the attic of the Merzliakov (Kostetskyi’s real surname) family estate in Vinnytsia. In the 1970s, Ihor Kostetskyi called his sister, Iryna, asking her to find the text. Iryna found a typewritten copy of Hrebinka’s translation and passed it on to another prominent translator, Hryhorii Kochur.^[22] Kochur, who was also subjected to repression by the Soviet authorities, made great efforts after his return from the Inta gulag to ensure that the text of the manuscript, which had survived Stalin’s regime and the Nazi occupation, would be published. Interestingly, Kochur’s own translation of Hamlet from 1964 is considered to be the most accurate. However, at that time, the communist party authorities forbade the inclusion of Kochur’s translation into the six-volume edition of Shakespeare’s works. Instead, the 1964 edition includes Hrebinka’s translation, modified by the editor M. Tupailo, who censored and changed the text substantially.^[23]

Another translator who contributed to the creation of Ukrainian Hamletiana in the 1940s was Viktor Ver who perished at the front during the Second World War, in 1944. Ver is the pseudonym of the Ukrainian poet Viktor Cherevko, author of several poetry collections. Hamlet, translated by Viktor Ver in 1941, was staged by Benedykt Nord at the Taras Shevchenko Drama Theatre of Kharkiv (formerly the Berezil Theater) in 1956. In this museum hall there is a picture of Yaroslav Helias^[24] as Hamlet in this adaptation. In the following year, Ver’s translation of Hamlet was staged by Borys Tiahno at the Maria Zankovetska Lviv Drama Theatre. Museum visitors can see a picture from this production with Oleksandr Hai as Hamlet and Hanna Bosenko as Gertrude.

Hall 4 of the museum introduces Mykhailo Rudnytskyi (1889–1975), a prominent Ukrainian writer, translator, journalist, literature, and theatre critic, who translated Hamlet at the request of the Lviv Opera House in 1942. The subsequent production became the first Ukrainian public presentation of the play. One of the photos featured in the museum hall shows a typewritten copy of his translation. Alongside, there is an issue of the theatrical journal Proscaenium (Lviv, 2004, Issues 1–2 (8–9)) that published Rudnytskyi’s Hamlet for the first time (the 1942 version). In 1954, Rudnytskyi made the second version of this translation. Visitors can also see its cover page published in a separate volume (Lviv, 2008). Information about Rudnytskyi’s translation was systematically suppressed in the Soviet Union. Rudnytskyi himself, who worked as a professor at Lviv University after World War II, did not mention in any of his questionnaires or scientific works that he had translated Hamlet, as such a mention would have put him in mortal danger because this fact would have been regarded as a collaboration with the Nazi regime.

Hamlet in Lviv in 1943

Halls 5 and 6 showcase photographs of Lviv during World War II. They contain geographical maps, a plan of Lviv in 1943, numerous photographs depicting cityscapes, iconic buildings, scenes from the everyday life of the city’s residents and visitors (passengers on a tram, people at a market, etc.), the central avenue, and the city’s theatre, the Lviv Opera House. Next to these, there are photographs of a prison, a concentration camp, and German soldiers on the streets of the city as markers of the occupation of Ukraine by Nazi Germany between 1941–1944. The exhibition also provides a compact historical account of the history of the city of Lviv in various time periods: from its foundation in 1256 by Ukrainian Prince Danylo Romanovych, through the years of the city’s existence as part of Poland, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Habsburg Empire, a short period of Ukrainian statehood as the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic, and then again of Poland, the Soviet Union, and since 1991 of independent Ukraine.

Halls 7 to 10 of the museum tell the story of the 1943 performance of Hamlet.^[25] They display photos of the artists who created the first Ukrainian Hamlet, in particular its director Yosyp Hirniak, the translator Mykhailo Rudnytskyi, the composer Lev Turkevych, the painter and illustrator Myroslav Hryhoriiiv, and the members of the cast. The actors appear in photographs of their everyday life as well as during their performances: Volodymyr Blavatskyi as Hamlet, Bohdan Pazdrii as Claudius, Vira Levytska as Gertrude, and others. Photos of the performance, the poster, and the programme construct a holistic impression of the 1943 Ukrainian premiere of the Shakespearean tragedy. Theatrical and critical reviews of the production, as well as interviews with its creators, contribute to understanding its main idea which teems with the most burning question about the destiny of the Ukrainian nation. On the Ukrainian stage in 1943, Hamlet’s central monologue “To be or not to be?” was addressed to the Ukrainian audience, an answer to the future of Ukraine: neither the Soviet nor the Nazi regime would allow Ukrainian culture to develop freely. The development of the museum, therefore, demands that it is time for Ukrainians to take fate into their own hands and rely only on their own strength.

The subsequent life trajectories of the artists involved in the Lviv production of Hamlet would each deserve a separate study. They are presented briefly in the last hall of the virtual museum. Its name draws on the ‘Post-history of the play Hamlet: Scattered Around the World’, which refers to the places where some of the people associated with the production ended up after the Second World War: in Western Europe, Asia (Siberia), North America and Australia. There are several typical scenarios in these life stories: (1) those who remained in Ukraine and were repressed; (2) those who remained in the USSR and, in order to avoid repression, were forced to adapt to the new political realities and keep silent about their previous work; finally, (3) those who emigrated abroad and tried to continue their cultural activities far beyond the borders of their homeland.

Particular attention is drawn to the actor Yaroslav Helias, who was lucky enough to work both in the 1943 first public presentation in Lviv as an actor and in the 1956 performance at the Kharkiv Taras Shevchenko Drama Theatre in the title role of Hamlet. Directed by Benedykt Nord, this Kharkiv performance was declared the ‘Ukrainian premiere’ of Hamlet in the USSR – the 1943 production in Lviv was strictly forbidden from being mentioned. Even later, due to the ideological pressure by the Soviet authorities, an inscription was engraved on Helias’s tombstone, stating ‘The First Ukrainian Hamlet’, in another attempt to erase Ukrainian history and impose the occupier’s story.

Only in 1991, when Ukraine gained its independence, did it become possible to reveal the truth about the real first performance of Hamlet on the Ukrainian stage in 1943. Thanks to the efforts of Bohdan Kozak (1940–2024) and Maiia Harbuziuk (1965–2023), Mykhailo Rudnytskyi’s translation of Hamlet was finally printed in 2008.^[26] The academic press published a number of articles dedicated to its long-silenced translation history.^[27] As such, the virtual museum is also part of the continuous campaign to decolonize and restore historical memory, and rehabilitate the names of Ukrainian national cultural figures who were unjustly repressed and/or banned by the Soviet regime.

Closing Remarks

Ukrainian cultural and intellectual developments are represented by numerous writers, translators, artists, actors, and directors. Many of them contributed to global Shakespeareana. Having translated Hamlet into Ukrainian, they enriched the world literary treasury. In spite of all the prohibitions and restrictions during tsarism and the Soviet regime, Ukrainian translations and productions were made possible thanks to dedicated enthusiasts, among them Paulin Święcicki, Mykhailo Starytskyi, Panteleimon Kulish, Yurii Fedkovych, Hnat Khotkevych, Yurii Klen, Leonid Hrebinka, Hryhorii Kochur, Viktor Ver, and Mykhailo Rudnytskyi. Their photographs, historical documents, and illustrations of their invaluable work can be found in the virtual online museum “#HAMLET_UA: ACT 1, SCENE 1943.”

The museum is also devoted to describing the context of the first public production of Hamlet in Ukrainian: views of Lviv in 1943, the story of the performance (Hamlet, Lviv, 1943, dir. Yosyp Hirniak), theatre reviews, the creative team behind the production as well as their lives after the show. This virtual museum, therefore, conveys a crucial message for Ukrainians: only they themselves have the power to shape their own destiny through the struggle for freedom and independence. At the same time, the museum holds significant importance for international audiences by decolonising knowledge about Ukraine. Its exhibition illustrates how Ukrainians fought to claim their own “Ukrainian Shakespeare” in defiance of both the Russian Empire and the communist regime, asserting their cultural identity, the right to independently choose the vector of further development, and be an equal participant in civilizational processes in the global world.

The museum staff expresses special gratitude to those who participated in the project and the originators of the idea – Maiia Harbuziuk, Nicola J. Watson, and Michael Dobson.